This bibliography of works on medieval communication offers a survey of work in a field of study which, from the 1960s onwards, has seen an ever-increasing number of monographs, collections of miscellanies and articles in learned journals being published every year. It provides a guide to this astonishing output by offering a list of more than 6.700 publications under sixteen headings. Because of the overlap of these headings, a comprehensive Index of subjects, place names and personal names is provided, which will allow the user to quickly find publications relevant to his research. A short Introduction precedes the bibliography. Progress in the field of study over the past two decades is outlined, with attention to those recent developments which have proved the most productive. At the same time, something is said about the growing insights which have led the bibliography’s organisation to be changed substantially since its previous edition in 1999, which already numbered 1.580 items. Not only the more than fourfold increase in the number of items made a new edition necessary therefore, but also new ideas about the best ways of organising the knowledge that is to be gained from the contents of studies of medieval communication.

Preface xiii

Introduction 1

How to Use This Bibliography 29

Chapter 1. Introductions 31

• 1.1 Theory of Literacy and (Written) Communication 31
• 1.2 Anthropological and Sociological Contributions to the Debate 35
• 1.3 Psychological Contributions to the Debate 37
• 1.4 Linguistic Contributions to the Debate 39
• 1.5 Literacy and (Written) Communication (in the Middle Ages) 40
• 1.5.1 The Münster School 43
• 1.5.2 The Freiburg School 44

Chapter 2. Surveys of the Introduction and Development of Written Culture 45

• 2.1 From Antiquity to the Present 45
• 2.2 Antiquity 49
• 2.2.1 Biblical Antiquity and Early Christianity 50
• 2.2.2 Classical Antiquity 51
• 2.2.3 Greek Antiquity 52
• 2.2.4 Roman Antiquity 55
• 2.2.5 Late Antiquity 55
• 2.3 Byzantium 57
• 2.4 The Middle Ages 59
• 2.4.1 Early Middle Ages 67
• 2.4.2 Later Middle Ages 70
• 2.5 Italy 72
• 2.5.1 Italy in the Early Middle Ages 72
• 2.5.2 Italy in the Later Middle Ages 74
• 2.6 Iberian Peninsula 76
• 2.7 France 78
• 2.8 Germany 78
• 2.8.1 Germany in the Early Middle Ages 79
• 2.8.2 Germany in the Later Middle Ages 80
• 2.9 Low Countries 81
• 2.10 England 82
• 2.10.1 England in the Early Middle Ages 82
• 2.10.2 England in the Later Middle Ages 84
• 2.11 Ireland and the ‘Celtic Fringe’ 87
• 2.12 Scandinavia 89
• 12.13 The Eastern Baltic Shores 91
• 2.14 East Central and Eastern Europe 92
• 2.14.1 East Central Europe: Bohemia, Hungary and Poland 92
• 2.14.2 The Balkans (without Byzantium) 95
• 2.14.3 Eastern Europe: The Russias 95
• 2.15 Jews 96
• 2.16 The Islamic World 97
• 2.17 After the Middle Ages 98

Chapter 3. Forms of Non-Verbal Communication 103

• 3.1 Middle Ages – General 103
• 3.2 Symbolic Spaces, Public and Private 104
• 3.3 The Senses 106
• 3.3.1 Smells 107
• 3.3.2 Flavours 109
• 3.4 Colours 109
• 3.5 Visual Images 111
• 3.5.1 Visual Images in Antiquity 111
• 3.5.2 Visual Images in Byzantium 112
• 3.5.3 Visual Images in the Middle Ages 112
• 3.5.3.1 Visual Images in the Early Middle Ages 113
• 3.5.3.2 Visual Images in the Later Middle Ages 114
• 3.5.4 Visual Images after the Middle Ages 115
• 3.6 Visual Images and Texts 115
• 3.6.1 General 115
• 3.6.1.1 Visual Images and the Illiterate 116
• 3.6.2 Visual Images and Texts in Antiquity 117
• 3.6.3 Visual Images and Texts in Byzantium 117
• 3.6.4 Visual Images and Texts in Islam 118
• 3.6.5 Visual Images and Texts in the Middle Ages 118
• 3.6.5.1 Visual Images and Texts in the Early Middle Ages 120
• 3.6.5.2 Visual Images and Texts in the Later Middle Ages 122
• 3.6.6 Visual Images and Texts after the Middle Ages 125
• 3.7 Sound and Noise 126
• 3.7.1 Music 126
• 3.8 The Human Body 131
• 3.9 Gestures 133
• 3.9.1 Gestures from Antiquity to the Present 134
• 3.9.2 Gestures in Antiquity 134
• 3.9.3 Gestures in Byzantium 134
• 3.9.4 Gestures in the Middle Ages 134
• 3.9.4.1 Gestures in the Early Middle Ages 136
• 3.9.4.2 Gestures in the Later Middle Ages 136
• 3.9.5 Gestures after the Middle Ages 138
• 3.10 Sign Language 138
• 3.11 Dance 139
• 3.12 Clothes 140
• 3.13 Symbolic Objects 144
• 3.14 Laughter 146

Chapter 4. Ritual 149

• 4.1 Theory of Ritual 149
• 4.2 (Ritualised) Emotions 149
• 4.3 Ritual – General Surveys 150
• 4.4 Ritual in the Middle Ages 151
• 4.5 Ritual in Early Modern Europe 153
• 4.6 Forms of Ritual 153
• 4.6.1 Forms of Ritual: Feasts 153
• 4.6.2 Forms of Ritual: Meals and Banquets 154
• 4.6.3 Forms of Ritual: (Table) Manners 156
• 4.7 Representation, Political Ritual and Ceremony 156
• 4.7.1 Representation 157
• 4.7.2 The Notion of Political Ritual 157
• 4.7.3 Political Ritual – General Surveys 158
• 4.7.4 Political Ritual in Antiquity 158
• 4.7.5 Political Ritual in the Middle Ages 158
• 4.7.5.1 Political Ritual in Early Medieval Europe 160
• 4.7.5.2 Political Ritual in Later Medieval Europe 161
• 4.7.6 Rituals of Rule: Acclamations, Coronations and Investitures 163
• 4.7.7 Rituals of Rule: Festive Entries 166
• 4.7.8 Rituals of Rule: The Meeting of Rulers 169
• 4.7.9 Rituals of Rule: Assemblies, Councils and Counsel 169
• 4.7.10 Rituals of Rule: The Lit de Justice 171
• 4.7.11 Rituals of Rule: Oaths, Pacts and Peace-Making 172
• 4.7.12 Rituals of Rule: On The Battlefield 173
• 4.7.13 Rituals of Rule: Staged Emotions 173
• 4.7.14 Rituals of Rule: Weddings 173
• 4.7.15 Rituals of Rule: Funerals 174
• 4.7.16 Rituals of Rule: The Papacy 176
• 4.7.17 Rituals of Rule: The Aristocracy 176
• 4.7.18 Rituals of Rule: The Towns 177
• 4.8 Rituals in Literature 179

Chapter 5. Language 181

• 5.1 Thinking about Language 182
• 5.2 Language in Antiquity 186
• 5.3 The Problem of Latin 186
• 5.3.1 Latin: General 186
• 5.3.2 Christian and Late Latin 187
• 5.3.3 Latin as Mother Tongue: From Latin to Romance 188
• 5.3.4 Latin as Father Tongue: Medieval Latin 194
• 5.3.5 Neo-Latin 196
• 5.4 The Problem of the Vernaculars 196
• 5.5 The Problem of Translation 198
• 5.6 Languages in Europe 199
• 5.6.1 Languages in the Italian Peninsula 204
• 5.6.2 Languages in the Iberian Peninsula 207
• 5.6.3 Languages in France 211
• 5.6.4 Languages in Switzerland 214
• 5.6.5 Languages in the German-speaking World 215
• 5.6.6 Languages in the Low Countries 217
• 5.6.7 Languages in the British Isles: Generalities 218
• 5.6.7.1 Languages in the British Isles: England 218
• 5.6.7.2 Languages in the British Isles: Scotland 222
• 5.6.7.3 Languages in the British Isles: The ‘Celtic Fringe’ 222
• 5.6.7.3.1Languages in the British Isles: Ireland 222
• 5.6.7.3.2Languages in the British Isles: Wales 223
• 5.6.8 Languages in Scandinavia 223
• 5.6.9 Languages on the Eastern Shores of the Baltic 223
• 5.6.10 Languages in East Central and Eastern Europe: Generalities 224
• 5.6.10.1 Languages in East Central Europe: Bohemia, Poland and Hungary 224
• 5.6.10.2 Languages in Eastern Europe: The Russias 227
• 5.6.11 Languages in South Eastern Europe (Including Byzantium) 227
• 5.6.12 Languages in the Middle East 229
• 5.7 Language as a Means of Distinction 229
• 5.8 Forms of Oral Communication 229
• 5.8.1 Forms of Oral Communication: Silence 230
• 5.8.2 Forms of Oral Communication: Battles of Words 231
• 5.8.3 Forms of Oral Communication: Proverbs 232
• 5.8.4 Forms of Oral Communication: Riddles 232
• 5.8.5 Forms of Oral Communication: Gossip 232
• 5.8.6 Forms of Oral Communication: Addressing the Ruler 234
• 5.8.7 Forms of Oral Communication: Law and Justice 234
• 5.8.8 Forms of Oral Communication: Administration 235
• 5.8.9 Forms of Oral Communication: Blasphemy, Curses and Other Verbal Injuries 235
• 5.8.10 Forms of Oral Communication: Parliamentary Rhetoric 235
• 5.8.11 Forms of Oral Communication: Battlefield Language 236
• 5.8.12 Forms of Oral Communication: Shouting 236

Chapter 6. Oral and Written Memory 237

• 6.1 Classical Antiquity 239
• 6.2 Middle Ages 240
• 6.3 “Lieux de Mémoire” 245
• 6.4 The Past in Primarily Oral Societies 245
• 6.5 Oral Tradition 246
• 6.5.1 Oral Tradition in Antiquity 248
• 6.5.2 Oral Tradition in the Middle Ages 248
• 6.5.2.1 Oral Tradition in the Early Middle Ages 249
• 6.5.2.2 Oral Tradition in the Later Middle Ages 250
• 6.5.3 Oral Tradition in Literary Texts 251
• 6.5.4 Oral Tradition in Historiography 255

Chapter 7. Teaching, Mainly of Reading and Writing 261

• 7.1 Teaching in Antiquity 262
• 7.2 Teaching in the Middle Ages 263
• 7.2.1 Teaching in the Early Middle Ages 267
• 7.2.2 Teaching in the Later Middle Ages 271
• 7.2.3 The Medieval University 284
• 7.3 Teaching in Islam 286
• 7.4 Jewish Education 287

Chapter 8. Production and Use of Written Texts 289

• 8.1 Script and Script Forms 289
• 8.2 Runes, Inscriptions, Graffiti and Wax Tablets 292
• 8.3 Book Production and Use 297
• 8.3.1 Book Production in Antiquity, Byzantium and the Islamic World 298
• 8.3.2 Book Production in the Middle Ages 299
• 8.3.2.1 Book Production in the Early Middle Ages 301
• 8.3.2.2 Book Production in the Later Middle Ages 302
• 8.4 Producing Charters and Archival Documents 305
• 8.5 Reading and the Reception of Texts 305
• 8.5.1 Reading in Antiquity 307
• 8.5.2 Reading in Byzantium 309
• 8.5.3 Reading in the Middle Ages 309
• 8.5.3.1 Reading in the Early Middle Ages 311
• 8.5.3.2 Reading in the Later Middle Ages 312
• 8.5.4 Reading in Early Modern Times 317
• 8.5.5 Reading, Lay-out, Manuscript Research and Editorial Techniques 318
• 8.6 The Printed Word 323

Chapter 9. The Preservation and Wilful Destruction of Written Texts 329

Chapter 10. Correspondence, Messengers and the Postal System 335

• 10.1 Messengers and Ambassadors 338

Chapter 11. Mandarin Literacy 341

Chapter 12. The Use of Writing by Different Social Groups 347

• 12.1 Clergy and Laymen 347
• 12.1.1 Secular Clergy 348
• 12.1.2 Regular Clergy 350
• 12.2 Aristocrats 356
• 12.3 Peasants 361
• 12.4 Town Dwellers 364
• 12.5 Women 373
• 12.5.1 Women Before the Middle Ages 373
• 12.5.2 Women in the Middle Ages 373
• 12.5.3 Women in the Early Middle Ages 376
• 12.5.4 Women in the Later Middle Ages 377
• 12.5.5 Religious Women 381
• 12.5.6 Lay Women: Queens and Noblewomen 381
• 12.5.7 Lay Women: Town Dwellers 382

Chapter 13. Uses of Writing in Government, Management and Trade 385

• 13.1 Legislation and Law 386
• 13.2 Charters 390
• 13.3 Jurisdiction and Dispute Settlement 398
• 13.4 Government 405
• 13.5 Notaries Public and Their Work 409
• 13.6 Management 410
• 13.7 Trade 412

Chapter 14. Literature 415

• 14.1 ‘Oral’ Literature 416
• 14.2 (Oral) Epic 421
• 14.3 The Composition of (Mainly) Oral Literature 424
• 14.4 Performance 426
• 14.5 The Bible as Literature 429
• 14.6 Classical Literature 430
• 14.6.1 Classical Greek Literature 431
• 14.6.2 Classical Latin Literature 431
• 14.6.3 Late Antique Literature 432
• 14.7 Byzantine Literature 432
• 14.8 Medieval Literature 433
• 14.8.1 Medieval Latin Literature 437
• 14.8.2 Literature in the Italian Peninsula 437
• 14.8.3 Literature in the Iberian Peninsula 439
• 14.8.4 Literature in France 442
• 14.8.5 Literature in the German-Speaking World 445
• 14.8.6 Literature in the Low Countries 451
• 14.7.9 Literature in the British Isles 452
• 14.7.9.1 Literature in the British Isles: England in the Early Middle Ages 452
• 14.7.9.2 Literature in the British Isles: England in the Later Middle Ages 458
• 14.7.9.3 Literature in the British Isles: The ‘Celtic Fringe’ 462
• 14.7.10 Literature in Scandinavia 465
• 14.7.11 Literature in East Central and Eastern Europe 468
• 14.7.12 Literature in the (mainly Arabic) Middle East 471
• 14.8 Drama, Theatre, Feast and Spectacle 473

Chapter 15. Religion and Writing 477

• 15.1 Before the Middle Ages and Generalities 477
• 15.2 Middle Ages 479
• 15.3 Mission 485
• 15.4 Liturgy 486
• 15.5 Sermons and Preaching 487
• 15.6 Hagiography 490
• 15.7 Visions, Dreams and Prophecy 494
• 15.8 The Magic of the Written Word 495

Chapter 16. The Symbolism of the Book 501

Subject Index 505

Index of Modern Authors and Editors 595